CHAPTER 1
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
Abstract
This chapter discusses
the philosophy and operating procedures of the China Lake Mountain Rescue
Group.
History
Nov 69 Written by Carl Heller
Jan 78 Revised by Carl Heller, Allen Jones, Lee Lucas, Bob Rockwell
May 92 Revised by Bob Rockwell, Daryl Hinman, Al Green
Sep 94 Reviewed by Lee Lucas, Tom Stogsdill, Bob Rockwell, Daryl Hinman,
Tom Roseman
Jan 95 Revised by Al Green, Tom Roseman, Tom Stogsdill
May 97 Edited by Loren Castro
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
In forming and managing a rescue group, many value judgments must be made.
These judgments involve the type of organization desired, the kinds of operations
to accept, and the rules of operation to follow. A group's ideas will evolve
as experience grows and situations change. This manual contains the current
ideas of the China Lake Mountain Rescue Group (CLMRG). This chapter defines
the Group's philosophy and standard operating procedures.
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The CLMRG formed because of two perceived needs. It seemed reasonable to
us that experienced mountaineers should offer their services to those in
trouble in the mountains. In addition, we wanted a formalized rescue capability
to exist for our own aid in case of an accident.
We need to be well prepared. This requires a good training program. At the
same time, we need to keep members interested and active and not frighten
off prospective members with too rigid a qualification structure. A lot
of work is involved, but we don't want members swept away by overdoing things.
Somehow at China Lake, we seem to have struck a good balance between an
all-fun mountaineering club and an all-work-and-rules rescue team.
On any actual operation, we must direct our main effort to aiding the person
called the victim here we are trying to find or rescue. Not so obvious,
but equally important, are the safety and public relations aspects.
We have found that safety tends to be overlooked when we are trying to save
a life. This tendency is sometimes necessary, but it means that our rules
must be clear and more rigidly enforced on operations than on recreational
activities.
One aim of a rescue group must be to enjoy a good reputation with the public
and with the agencies that control Search and Rescue (SAR) operations. Without
this, the group is not called and its capabilities are not used to perform
rescues not even for its own members. Thus, we must operate so as to inspire
confidence in the victim, the victim's family, the legal authorities, and
the general public. One consequence of this is that we must respond to virtually
any SAR operation for which the authorities request our aid.
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The Group has changed considerably since its inception in 1958, generally
toward more discipline and organization. Despite the examples of other rescue
teams, we are reluctant to give our leaders too much authority or to bind
our members to overly strict rules. The present rules and organization have
evolved over a considerable period and appear to be a reasonable compromise.
We have a dual structure one for administration and one for operations.
Although this may seem unnecessarily complicated, it works well.
Operational
Leaders
Technical
Rescue
Support
Trainee
Special Skills
Coordinators
Administrative
Officers
Qualifications Committee
Committees:
First Aid
Equipment
Training
Public Education
Others: MRA representative, Newsletter Editor, Sheriff's meeting representative
_
1. The members elect the officers.
2. The members elect the Qualifications Committee (QC).
3. The members rank the potential leaders.
4. The QC, using the above data, determines the number of leaders.
5. The officers appoint the committees.
6. The QC places members in the roster categories.
For administration, elected officers and appointed
committees handle training, equipment, finances, public education, and liaison
with other groups. We select officers and committees annually, which gives
everyone a chance to share the work.
For operations, elected team leaders run all aspects of field activities.
We elect these leaders annually, and our call roster lists them in their
order of ranking by the membership. We respond on operations only if a leader
is available. Normally, the first leader contacted and able to participate
becomes the operation leader.
The Group's call roster lists all members who are qualified and willing
to respond on operations. An elected Qualifications Committee (QC) places
members in the proper categories on the roster.
On any Group activity, the highest listed field member on the current call
roster is in charge unless other arrangements have been made. This holds
for all operations, training activities, and outings. This policy throws
a lot of responsibility on the leaders, but it reduces disorganized activity
that can endanger lives.
Our Group is one of several mountain rescue teams that operate in California.
We belong to the national Mountain Rescue Association (MRA) and to the California
Region Mountain Rescue Association (CRMRA). CRMRA sponsors workshops and
conferences to improve existing teams' capabilities, tests new teams for
proficiency, and promotes the exchange of information and close cooperation
among teams in the state.
The QC recommends general qualifications for the Group's approval and places
members in the proper categories based on their experience and ability.
Our levels of expertise for field members are Technical, Rescue, and Support.
The appendix to our Group's Bylaws in Chapter 2 briefly describes the qualifications
for these categories while Chapter 3 lists and describes them in detail.
All members requalify annually to retain their status.
New applicants are placed in the Trainee category after completing the requirements
for acceptance. As soon as a Trainee has demonstrated dependability and
mountaineering potential, we put him on the call roster as a Support member
so that he can participate on operations. Support members can advance to
the Rescue level after about two or three years of experience.
Rescue members are mountaineers who assist on technical rescues and participate
fully on less technical rescues and searches. Some Rescue members are former
Support members who are working actively to become qualified as Technical
members. Others may be good climbers who do not choose (or may not have
the time) to become trained in all SAR skills. Still others may be former
Technical members who no longer maintain the minimum qualifications for
Technical status but whose experience and leadership are important on operations.
Advancing from Rescue to Technical usually takes two or three years of active
participation in operations, training, and climbing. Technical members are
expected to know how to carry out all phases of technical rescues and searches.
They must be skilled in all of the specialties of first aid, technical climbing
and rescue, tracking, search strategy, and leadership.
Coordinators and Special Skills members, are listed separately on the call
roster. Coordinators assist the operation leader in the initial mobilization
for an operation by having the roster called for field members to participate.
Coordinators interface with the requesting agencies, the Kern County Sheriff's
Office, and the media. They provide in-town coordination as a home base
communication link for liaison and logistics during the course of the operation.
Special Skills members are usually non-mountaineers who possess useful skills
for operations such as ham radio operation, telephoning, and medical support.
A Coordinator or Special Skills member must have a current Special Deputy
card. In addition, to participate in other than an "at home" role,
the Coordinator or Special Skills member must have current CPR and first
aid cards.
We list each member's special capabilities and resources in separate columns
on the roster. This allows an operation leader to easily communicate his
priorities during a callout. Items listed at the present time indicate ready
pack (stored at the rescue hut), rescue climbing lead rating, tracking ability,
winter or ski mountaineering qualification, Emergency Locator Transmitter
(ELT) training, and four-wheel-drive vehicle. These items can change as
operational experience indicates the need.
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All field members are expected to engage in regular aerobic and altitude
conditioning exercise and to be active on Group outings, practices, and
operations. Participation in Group climbs is especially encouraged as a
means to gain altitude acclimatization, terrain familiarization, and practice
in climbing skills and rope handling. Learning the capabilities, limitations,
and demeanor of other Group members is vitally important.
The Group's training program includes training in mountaineering and rock
climbing, SAR techniques, and first aid. In our summer basic mountaineering
classes, we try to get people interested in climbing and in the Group. Our
trips into the Sierra Nevada and nearby desert ranges every one or two weeks
teach further aspects of mountaineering. Two or three stretcher practices
per year teach rescue techniques and teamwork. One or two practice searches
a year teach search, organization, and tracking skills. Qualified Group
members teach first aid classes under the auspices of the American Red Cross.
The classes are designed to have a mountaineering situation bias.
The best training comes, of course, from actual operations. Frequently,
Rescue members who are working toward Technical status are included in the
technical phases of an operation. This way, they can learn by working with
veterans. Leadership training comes the same way by observing the operation
from the inside.
Books on mountaineering and SAR can provide a background. A list of recommended
books can be obtained from the Training Committee.
New members receive a list of recommended personal gear for operations.
They should obtain these items as soon as possible. Good boots and bivouac
gear are necessary for going into the field. Members are also asked to have
a brightly colored parka (preferably orange), an orange shirt, a specified
first aid kit, a headlamp, slings and carabiners, and a helmet. Expensive
gear such as climbing ropes and hardware can be furnished by experienced
climbers on training climbs so new members need not buy them right away.
Members who have enough gear should consider placing a ready pack and clothing
bag in the rescue hut. This will speed up mobilizations during both working
and non-working hours.
Initially, we had trouble getting our individualistic mountaineers to wear
anything suggesting a uniform. Now, however, our veterans realize the usefulness
of a uniform parka and shirt. If our Group looks professional, we get a
stronger voice in the operation and can do more good for the victim. Also,
we are more apt to instill confidence in the family and friends of the victim.
The color is a very visible international orange so that our teams are easily
spotted. Headgear and packs are non-uniform to permit distinguishing individual
members at a distance.
The Group owns specialized rescue gear and radios. We have accumulated equipment
slowly as we learned what we needed. After improvising stretchers from cabin
doors and airplane wings, we became convinced of the need for backpackable
stretchers. The aluminum breakdown Stokes litters are light enough for one
person to carry. With each litter go some rope slings for anchors and rigging,
aluminum hardware, 200-foot ropes, and a bottom cover to make the litter
more usable on snow. For the victim's comfort, we have a foam pad that fits
into the litter and a specially made sleeping bag.
Communication was a serious problem that we have solved by buying better
radio gear. We now have a reasonably complete radio capability on the special
emergency FM frequencies of 155.160 MHz and 155.235 MHz. These channels
are also used by the other mountain rescue teams in California, which makes
cooperation easier on joint operations.
The Group also owns several Global Positioning System (GPS) navigational
units. GPS technology locates rescue teams precisely and has proved to be
very useful.
Currently, all Group equipment is stored in our rescue hut located at 76-A
Harpoon Street at NAWS, China Lake. To simplify equipment selection, most
operations begin with a mobilization at the hut. Occasional "hut nights"
familiarize members with the location, setup, and operation of Group equipment.
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Each operation is different. A certain pattern, however, has emerged, and
we have worked out procedures and rules for each phase of an operation to
ensure efficiency and safety. These are discussed in the order normally
occurring on an operation: alert, mobilization, transit, base camp, joint
operations, in the field, evacuation, return home, and critique and report.
ALERT
Calls for the Group's assistance usually come from a county sheriff or a
park ranger. These agencies are ultimately responsible for conducting SAR
operations. The call eventually reaches a Group leader who assumes responsibility
for responding, decides what kind of response is appropriate, and enlists
a Coordinator to call field members. Exceptions to this rule occur if another
leader already has the weekend duty or if the contacted leader cannot go.
If a leader is not available, we do not field a team.
Delicate situations can arise between the authorities and our Group if we
start an operation before being requested officially. If the problem appears
urgent, however, we should mobilize and get on scene while at the same time
trying to notify the responsible agency of the problem and our ongoing response.
The operation leader decides whether to put members on alert or to have
an immediate mobilization. He tells the Coordinator the kind of operation
(search or rescue), its location, how many members and what skills (rock
climbers, trackers, winter, ELT, etc.) he wants, when and where to meet,
the type of gear likely to be needed, and how many days to prepare for.
This information is passed to each member. The leader also decides whom
to call and in what order. He is under no obligation to call a member who
in his judgment lacks the proper experience or equipment. When called, members
have three possible responses: "Yes," "No," or "Later."
Members who are going must understand the information given, when and where
to meet, and what gear to bring. If it is an alert, they should get ready
and keep the Coordinator informed where they can be reached until the alert
is over. Members who are not going must not delay the callout by asking
questions.
New leaders can obtain examples of leaders' notebooks that contain alert
and callout sheets, addresses and phone numbers, base camp log sheets, report
forms, and general information. Leaders should add any information they
want and keep the notebooks current. Leaders may want two notebooks, one
at home and one at work since they are likely to get called at any time.
MOBILIZATION
Members, with their gear, meet at the designated place (usually the rescue
hut) and time. When packing, if in doubt about gear, members should take
anything they might need to the mobilization point. They can always leave
unnecessary items behind. The first members to arrive should start to organize
Group equipment for the operation. This will help get the team on the road
faster and may prevent something from being forgotten.
As soon as everyone is present, the operation leader briefs all members
about the nature of the problem and what his plans are. Up to this time,
any member may withdraw for personal or technical reasons. Beyond this point,
a member should have a very good reason for dropping out or for refusing
a leader's directions. In particular, no member should withdraw in a manner
to discredit the leader or Group, nor should anyone leave without informing
the leader.
Members and gear are divided among the available vehicles and a rendezvous
location is agreed upon. Drivers should be sure they know where to go and
how to get there. A team leader should be in charge of each vehicle and
responsible for the equipment it carries.
Often, sending an advance team to stabilize an injured victim, to evaluate
the situation, or to coordinate with other teams present is a good idea.
The advance team needs maps, radios, and first aid and survival gear but
can leave heavier items for others to bring. The advance team may go by
helicopter with the other members following in vehicles.
TRANSIT
The Explorer vehicle is capable of carrying four members and gear. It
should
be used because of its installed radios and the expense of driving personal
vehicles. If more than four members respond, we normally use personal vehicles.
While en route, members can discuss possible actions and the gear likely
to be needed and organize their packs accordingly. Members can discuss matters
that should not be talked about in base camp and forewarn newer members.
Examples of sensitive topics are the victim's chances of survival and how
to report a fatality knowing that our radio frequency is monitored. If the
driving time to base camp is lengthy, consider stopping every hour or two
en route to call and verify that the operation is still going on. Monitoring
specific radio frequencies to receive updates of the operation is also possible.
BASE CAMP
The rendezvous point may be at a campground or a trail head. If no base
camp is established, the advance team and the operation leader should help
choose a location. This should be done deliberately. Most inexperienced
rescuers are in a hurry to get into the field, but 10 to 20 minutes of discussion
usually saves time later. It might save the entire operation. The operation
leader needs to be sure that he has all the pertinent data before moving
everyone to a new location or committing teams to the field.
If our team is the first to arrive, we should set up base camp for the entire
operation. This means getting information about the victim and determining
what has been done already, what other teams are expected to participate,
and what general plans have already been made by the person in charge. It
means selecting a spot to set up base radios, getting maps ready, and making
suggestions to the person in charge. Explaining carefully why we are staying
in base camp and not going into the field immediately is important. It helps
if everyone in base camp is busy. When base camp is in order and an initial
plan is made, teams can then go into the field. An expanded base camp staff
may be needed until all teams arrive and are briefed and in the field.
Initially, base camp is likely to appear to be a very confused place. Newer
members unsure of what to do are best advised to get their packs ready,
inventory team resources (technical gear, ropes, tents, food, stoves, etc.),
and wait for their leader to return with a field assignment.
Each team going into the field needs a field team leader, one or more radios,
maps, and someone good at route finding. A GPS navigational unit should
be taken if available. Each team should be self-sufficient and prepared
to render vital aid to the victim. Aid to the victim is likely to mean (1)
food and water at least one canteen just for him, (2) warmth sleeping bag
and pad, stove and pots, etc., depending on the weather, and (3) first aid
each member should carry the prescribed personal first aid kit.
When teams go into the field, base camp coordinates their activities. Field
team leaders must remember to keep base camp informed of their location
and progress. It is more usual to pass too little information than too much.
When radio traffic is low, a team should consider giving its location and
plans to base camp in case radio contact is lost later. Base camp always
welcomes ideas and suggestions from teams in the field. Radio messages should
be thought out in advance to keep the radio net from being overloaded. Search
teams should not try to rush but should be careful and thorough. Even advance
teams on a rescue should go carefully enough to avoid getting off route
or missing the victim.
The operation leader and other team leaders usually ask for opinions before
acting. A leader, however, is not expected to debate his decisions during
the operation. Unless safety is a factor, members should follow the leader's
decisions faithfully.
The operation leader should bear in mind that the sheriff's deputy or park
ranger has the final say on most matters. Once we have voiced our opinion,
it is usually wise not to persist if he disagrees. Remember that he has
very definite responsibilities that we must respect. We can refuse any dangerous
mission, but it is worthwhile for the operation leader to explain carefully
why an assignment may be too dangerous.
If news reporters appear, the responsible officer or the operation leader
usually designates one person to brief them. Other rescuers should not discuss
the operation with anyone unknown to them. In particular, nothing derogatory
concerning the victim, his companions, other rescue teams, or the legal
authorities should be voiced.
JOINT OPERATIONS
When other mountain rescue teams are involved, a single joint operation
leader is chosen to direct the operation. Normally, he will be the leader
of the first team called or the leader of the "home" organization.
Our operation leader should stay in base camp to help run the operation
and to act as liaison for our Group. If he chooses to go into the field,
he should designate another Group leader as base camp liaison. Only if our
team is very small should this be neglected. We normally have an area or
task assigned to our Group with our leaders in charge of our members in
the field. On joint operations, we follow the joint operation procedures
adopted by the CRMRA. Our leaders are expected to know these procedures
and to keep a copy in their notebooks.
IN THE FIELD
For safety, no one travels or acts alone. If any one member gets separated,
the entire operation switches to finding him. We hope that the knowledge
that this will happen is enough to discourage lone adventurers. Another
safety rule is that no one is asked to climb beyond his level of confidence.
Also, all anchors, brake setups, and litter riggings are checked by a designated
safety officer before use.
Whenever a large team is about to divide into smaller separate teams, members
should sit down and discuss plans. Each team leader should be sure that
his intentions are known by the other leaders and by the operation leader.
Then he should follow his plan.
A log should be kept at base camp and by each team leader to record the
dispatching of field teams (including names and radio numbers), loans of
equipment, radio messages, significant events, and volunteered information
with name, address, and phone number of the informant.
EVACUATION
When the victim is reached, the team leader must think about treatment and
evacuation. He should not try to do these jobs himself but should designate
other rescuers to be responsible.
A vital thing to consider is communication. The more base camp knows, the
more it can help, and the less chance that unnecessary and dangerous activities
will be initiated. (Remember, for example, that each helicopter flight into
the mountains carries some risk.) The best rule is to keep base camp fully
informed.
The team leader should assign one rescuer to stay with the victim (one for
each victim) throughout the evacuation to render first aid as needed. This
is far better than having several rescuers all trying to help. He can learn
the victim's needs and explain any delays. Also, he can monitor and record
vital signs. If a helicopter evacuation is planned, he can explain to the
victim what to expect.
The stretcher must be set up rapidly, since much of first aid consists of
getting the victim into a warm sleeping bag and into the stretcher. Simultaneously,
teams need to scout the route for evacuation. Picking a good route and setting
anchors properly requires highly experienced rescuers.
RETURN HOME
The operation is not over until all teams are out of the field and back
home and all equipment is returned to the hut in ready condition. The operation
leader is responsible for seeing that all gear is returned and properly
stored and that final reporting is completed. Also, he should inform the
Quartermaster of any non-functioning or worn equipment (including maps).
CRITIQUE AND REPORT
After the operation, the operation leader must write several reports. He
should fill out the Group operation report immediately. If the operation
caused members to miss work, the leader must write an excused time request.
He should note who drove and how far so the drivers can be reimbursed. He
should write a narrative report including lessons learned if appropriate
for the Talus Pile. He should document mountaineering accidents on the American
Alpine Club's form for their annual survey. All these reports should be
filed with the QC. After reviewing the reports, the QC distributes them.
A critique is especially important for complicated or controversial operations.
The operation leader should consider contacting the other groups involved,
including the officer in charge. In addition to getting information, these
contacts can clear up any outstanding problems or misunderstandings. Normally,
a critique is held at the next Group meeting. Any ideas for improving operations
and any problems encountered should be aired at this time. The Talus Pile
report and search and accident reports can be modified after this critique
to take advantage of the discussion. However, the reports should be timely.
A stress debrief should be considered after any operation that involves
an unsuccessful search or a body recovery. Critical stress debriefs should
be led by experienced facilitators and counselors, who are available at
the Desert Counseling Center.
Volunteer groups such as ours are subject to unheralded demise, so we must
regularly let people know that we are still around and active. A good public
relations program depends on being able to perform as expected. The program
thus starts with an examination of what we promise. Our circulars to legal
authorities must be clear and honest. We must avoid any appearance of boasting
or of making promises we cannot keep.
Fund raising depends on public recognition of our worth. We have a Public
Education committee whose function is to organize demonstrations and presentations
about the Group. No harm results from letting it be known that we will accept
donations. An equally important function of this committee is to reach potential
victims with our safety education program before they get into trouble.
On operations, we must appear as professional as we are. The uniform shirt
and parka are part of this appearance. Neatness of our base camp is important.
Our behavior must be above reproach, particularly regarding the fate of
the victim. Members should be very careful with off-hand remarks around
base camp. One careless comment overheard by someone outside the Group could
jeopardize years of work in building a good working relationship with the
authorities, with other rescue teams, and with the public.
Publicity about operations should be fair to everyone involved. We should
never release a report critical of other organizations unless the entire
Group has so voted. Almost always, we are only part of an operation and
act under the authority of some legally responsible agency. Any news release
should mention under whose authority we were called. We should credit all
participating groups accurately. On a search, we normally do not credit
the specific person or team who actually finds the victim because the success
of the operation depends on the contributions of everyone involved.
1 May 97